The brain holds a ‘map’ of the body that remains unchanged even after a limb has been amputated, contrary to the prevailing view that it rearranges itself to compensate for the loss, according to new research from scientists in the UK and US. We suspected that the brain maps would be largely unchanged, but the extent to which the map of the missing limb remained intact was jaw-dropping Tamar Makin The findings, published today in Nature Neuroscience, have implications for the treatment of ‘phantom limb’ pain, but also suggest that controlling robotic replacement limbs via neural interfaces may be more straightforward than previously thought. Studies have previously shown that within an area of the brain known as the somatosensory cortex there exists a map of the body, with different regions corresponding to different body parts. These maps are responsible for processing sensory information, such as touch, temperate and pain, as well as body position. For example, if you touch something hot with your hand, this will activate a particular region of the brain; if you stub your toe, a different region activates. For decades now, the commonly-accepted view among neuroscientists has been that following amputation of a limb, neighbouring regions rearrange and essentially take over the area previously assigned to the now missing limb. This has relied on evidence from studies carried out after amputation, without comparing activity in the brain maps beforehand. But this has presented a conundrum. Most amputees report phantom sensations, a feeling that the limb is still in place – this can also lead to sensations such as itching or pain in the missing limb. Also, brain imaging studies where amputees have been asked to ‘move’ their missing fingers have shown brain patterns resembling those of able-bodied individuals. To investigate this contradiction, a team led by Professor Tamar Makin from the University of Cambridge and Dr Hunter Schone from the University of Pittsburgh followed three individuals due to undergo amputation of one of their hands. This is the first time a study has looked at the hand and face maps of individuals both before and after amputation. Most of the work was carried out while Professor Makin and Dr Schone were at UCL. Prior to amputation, all three individuals were able to move all five digits of their hands. While lying in a functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) scanner – which measures activity in the brain – the participants were asked to move their individual fingers and to purse their lips. The researchers used the brain scans to construct maps of the hand and lips for each individual. In these maps, the lips sit near to the hand. The participants repeated the activity three months and again six months after amputation, this time asked to purse their lips and to imagine moving individual fingers. One participant was scanned again 18 months after amputation and a second participant five years after amputation. The researchers examined the signals from the pre-amputation finger maps and compared them against the maps post-amputation. Analysis of the ‘before’ and ‘after’ images revealed a remarkable consistency: even with their hand now missing, the corresponding brain region activated in an almost identical manner. Professor Makin, from the Medical Research Council Cognition and Brain Science Unit at the University of Cambridge, the study’s senior author, said: “Because of our previous work, we suspected that the brain maps would be largely unchanged, but the extent to which the map of the missing limb remained intact was jaw-dropping. “Bearing in mind that the somatosensory cortex is responsible for interpreting what’s going on within the body, it seems astonishing that it doesn’t seem to know that the hand is no longer there.” As previous studies had suggested that the body map reorganises such that neighbouring regions take over, the researchers looked at the region corresponding to the lips to see if it had moved or spread. They found that it remained unchanged and had not taken over the region representing the missing hand. The study’s first author, Dr Schone from the Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, University of Pittsburgh, said: “We didn’t see any signs of the reorganisation that is supposed to happen according to the classical way of thinking. The brain maps remained static and unchanged.” To complement their findings, the researchers compared their case studies to 26 participants who had had upper limbs amputated, on average 23.5 years beforehand. These individuals showed similar brain representations of the hand and lips to those in their three case studies, suggesting long-term evidence for the stability of hand and lip representations despite amputation. illustration1.jpg Brain activity maps for the hand (shown in red) and lips (blue) before and after amputation The researchers offer an explanation for the previous misunderstanding of what happens within the brain following amputation. They say that the boundaries within the brain maps are not clear cut – while the brain does have a map of the body, each part of the map doesn’t support one body part exclusively. So while inputs from the middle finger may largely activate one region, they also show some activity in the region representing the forefinger, for example. Previous studies that argue for massive reorganisation determined the layout of the maps by applying a ‘winner takes all’ strategy – stimulating the remaining body parts and noting which area of the brain shows most activity; because the missing limb is no longer there to be stimulated, activity from neighbouring limbs has been misinterpreted as taking over. The findings have implications for the treatment of phantom limb pain, a phenomenon that can plague amputees. Current approaches focus on trying to restore representation of the limb in the brain’s map, but randomised controlled trials to test this approach have shown limited success – today’s study suggests this is because these approaches are focused on the wrong problem. Dr Schone said: “The remaining parts of the nerves — still inside the residual limb — are no longer connected to their end-targets. They are dramatically cut off from the sensory receptors that have delivered them consistent signals. Without an end-target, the nerves can continue to grow to form a thickening of the nerve tissue and send noisy signals back to the brain. “The most promising therapies involve rethinking how the amputation surgery is actually performed, for instance grafting the nerves into a new muscle or skin, so they have a new home to attach to.” Of the three participants, one had substantial limb pain prior to amputation but received a complex procedure to graft the nerves to new muscle or skin; she no longer experiences pain. The other two participants, however, received the standard treatment and continue to experience phantom limb pain. The University of Pittsburgh is one of a number of institutions that is researching whether movement and sensation can be restored to paralysed limbs or whether amputated limbs might be replaced by artificial, robotic limbs controlled by a brain interface. Today’s study suggests that because the brain maps are preserved, it should – in theory – be possible to restore movement to a paralysed limb or for the brain to control a prosthetic. Dr Chris Baker from the Laboratory of Brain & Cognition, National Institutes of Mental Health, said: “If the brain rewired itself after amputation, these technologies would fail. If the area that had been responsible for controlling your hand was now responsible for your face, these implants just wouldn’t work. Our findings provide a real opportunity to develop these technologies now.” Dr Schone added: “Now that we’ve shown these maps are stable, brain-computer interface technologies can operate under the assumption that the body map remains consistent over time. This allows us to move into the next frontier: accessing finer details of the hand map — like distinguishing the tip of the finger from the base — and restoring the rich, qualitative aspects of sensation, such as texture, shape, and temperature. This study is a powerful reminder that even after limb loss, the brain holds onto the body, waiting for us to reconnect.” The research was supported by Wellcome, the National Institute of Mental Health, National Institutes of Health and Medical Research Council. Reference Schone, HR et al. Stable Cortical Body Maps Before and After Arm Amputation. Nature Neuroscience; 21 Aug 2025; DOI: 10.1038/s41593-025-02037-7 The text in this work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License. Images, including our videos, are Copyright ©University of Cambridge and licensors/contributors as identified. All rights reserved. We make our image and video content available in a number of ways – on our main website under its Terms and conditions, and on a range of channels including social media that permit your use and sharing of our content under their respective Terms.

A new total-body PET scanner to be hosted in Cambridge – one of only a handful in the country – will transform our ability to diagnose and treat a range of conditions in patients and to carry out cutting-edge research and drug development. This is an exciting new technology that will transform our ability to answer important questions about how diseases arise and to search for and develop new treatments Franklin Aigbirhio The scanner, funded through a £5.5m investment from the UKRI Medical Research Council (MRC), will form part of the National PET Imaging Platform (NPIP), the UK’s first-of-its-kind national total-body PET imaging platform for drug discovery and clinical research. Positron emission tomography (PET) is a powerful technology for imaging living tissues and organs down to the molecular level in humans. It can be used to investigate how diseases arise and progress and to detect and diagnose diseases at an early stage. Total-body PET scanners are more sensitive than existing technology and so can provide new insights into anatomy that have never been seen before, improving detection, diagnosis and treatment of complex, multi-organ diseases. Current PET technology is less sensitive and requires the patient to be repositioned multiple times to achieve a full-body field of view. Total-body PET scans can achieve this in one session and are quicker, exposing patients to considerably lower doses of radiation. This means more patients, including children, can participate in clinical research and trials to improve our understanding of diseases. ANGLIA network of universities and NHS trusts Supplied by Siemens Healthineers, the scanner will also be the focus of the ANGLIA network, comprising three universities, each paired with one or more local NHS trusts: the University of Cambridge and Cambridge University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust; UCL and University College London Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust; and the University of Sheffield with Sheffield Teaching Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust. The network, supported by UKRI, is partnered with biotech company Altos Labs and pharmaceutical company AstraZeneca, both with R&D headquarters in Cambridge, and Alliance Medical, a leading provider of diagnostic imaging. Franklin Aigbirhio, Professor of Molecular Imaging Chemistry at the University of Cambridge, will lead the ANGLIA network. He said: “This is an exciting new technology that will transform our ability to answer important questions about how diseases arise and to search for and develop new treatments that will ultimately benefit not just our patients, but those across the UK and beyond. “But this is more than just a research tool. It will also help us diagnose and treat diseases at an even earlier stage, particularly in children, for whom repeated investigations using standard PET scanners was not an option.” The scanner will be located in Addenbrooke’s Hospital, Cambridge, supported by the National Institute for Health and Care Research (NIHR) Cambridge Biomedical Research Centre, ensuring that the discoveries and breakthroughs it enables can be turned rapidly into benefits to patients. It will expand NHS access to PET services, particularly in underserved areas across the East of England, and support more inclusive trial participation. Patrick Maxwell, Regius Professor of Physic and Head of the School of Clinical Medicine at the University of Cambridge, said: “The ANGLIA network, centred on the Cambridge Biomedical Campus and with collaborations across the wider University and its partners, will drive innovations in many areas of this key imaging technology, such as new radiopharmaceuticals and application of AI to data analysis, that will bring benefits to patients far beyond its immediate reach. Its expertise will help build the next generation of PET scientists, as well as enabling partners in industry to use PET to speed up the development of new drugs.” Roland Sinker, Chief Executive of Cambridge University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, which runs Addenbrooke’s Hospital, said: “I am pleased that our patients will be some of the first to benefit from this groundbreaking technology. Harnessing the latest technologies and enabling more people to benefit from the latest research is a vital part of our work at CUH and is crucial to the future of the NHS. “By locating this scanner at Addenbrooke’s we are ensuring that it can be uniquely used to deliver wide ranging scientific advances across academia and industry, as well as improving the lives of patients.” It is anticipated that the scanner will be installed by autumn 2026. Enhancing training and research capacity The co-location of the total-body PET scanner with existing facilities and integration with systems at the University of Cambridge and Addenbrooke’s Hospital will also enhance training and research capacity, particularly for early-career researchers and underrepresented groups. The ANGLIA network will provide opportunities to support and train more by people from Black and other minority ethnic backgrounds to participate in PET chemistry and imaging. The University of Cambridge will support a dedicated fellowship scheme, capacity and capability training in key areas, and strengthen the network partnership with joint projects and exchange visits. Professor Aigbirhio, who is also co-chair of the UKRI MRC’s Black in Biomedical Research Advisory Group, added: “Traditionally, scientists from Black and other minority ethnic backgrounds are under-represented in the field of medical imaging. We aim to use our network to change this, providing fellowship opportunities and training targeted at members of these communities.” The National PET Imaging Platform Funded by UKRI’s Infrastructure Fund, and delivered by a partnership between Medicines Discovery Catapult, MRC and Innovate UK, NPIP provides a critical clinical infrastructure of scanners, creating a nationwide network for data sharing, discovery and innovation. It allows clinicians, industry and researchers to collaborate on an international scale to accelerate patient diagnosis, treatment and clinical trials. The MRC funding for the Cambridge scanner will support the existing UKRI Infrastructure Fund investment for NPIP and enables the University to establish a total-body PET facility. Dr Ceri Williams, Executive Director of Challenge-Led Themes at MRC said: “MRC is delighted to augment the funding for NPIP to provide an additional scanner for Cambridge in line with the original recommendations of the funding panel. This additional machine will broaden the geographic reach of the platform, providing better access for patients from East Anglia and the Midlands, and enable research to drive innovation in imaging, detection, and diagnosis, alongside supporting partnership with industry to drive improvements and efficiency for the NHS.” Dr Juliana Maynard, Director of Operations and Engagement for the National PET Imaging Platform, said: “We are delighted to welcome the University of Cambridge as the latest partner of NPIP, expanding our game-changing national imaging infrastructure to benefit even more researchers, clinicians, industry partners and, importantly, patients. “Once operational, the scanner will contribute to NPIP’s connected network of data, which will improve diagnosis and aid researchers’ understanding of diseases, unlocking more opportunities for drug discovery and development. By fostering collaboration on this scale, NPIP helps accelerate disease diagnosis, treatment, and clinical trials, ultimately leading to improved outcomes for patients." The text in this work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License. Images, including our videos, are Copyright ©University of Cambridge and licensors/contributors as identified. All rights reserved. We make our image and video content available in a number of ways – on our main website under its Terms and conditions, and on a range of channels including social media that permit your use and sharing of our content under their respective Terms.

King’s Entrepeneurship Lab (King’s E-Lab) and Founders at the University of Cambridge have revealed the 24 startups that will join King’s College’s first-ever incubator programme designed to turn research-backed ideas from University of Cambridge students and alumni into investable companies. We look forward to seeing this cohort turn their ambitions into ventures that contribute meaningfully to the economy Kamiar Mohaddes Created by King's E-Lab, in partnership with Founders at the University of Cambridge, SPARK will act as an entrepreneurial launchpad. This programme will offer hands-on support, world-class mentorship and practical training to enable world-changing ventures covering challenges such as disease prevention and treatment, fertility support and climate resilience. The combined networks of successful entrepreneurs, investor alumni and venture-building expertise brought by King’s E-Lab and Founders at the University of Cambridge will address a critical gap to drive innovation. More than 180 applications were received for SPARK 1.0, reflecting strong demand for early incubation support. Of the selected companies, focused on AI, machine learning, biotechnology and impact, 42% of the companies are at idea stage, 40% have an early-stage product, and 17% have early users. Around half of the selected companies are led by women. Ashgold Africa - An edtech business building solar projects to provide sustainable energy in rural Kenya. Aizen Software - Credit referencing fintech working on financial inclusion. Atera Analytics - Optimising resources around the EV energy infrastructure ecosystem. Cambridge Mobilytics - Harnessing data from UK EV charging stations to aid decision-making in the e-mobility sector. Dielectrix - Building next-gen semiconductor dielectric materials for electronics using 2D materials. Dulce Cerebrum - Building AI models to detect psychosis from blood tests. GreenHarvest - Data-driven agritech firm using satellite and climate data to predict changing crop yield migration. Heartly - Offering affordable, personalised guidance on preventing cardiovascular disease. Human Experience Dynamics - Combining patient experiences and physiological measures to create holistic insight in psychiatric trials. iFlame - Agentic AI system to help build creative product action plans. IntolerSense - Uncovering undiscovered food intolerances using an AI-powered app. Med Arcade - AI-powered co-pilot to help GPs interact with patient data. MENRVA - AI-powered matchmaking engine for the art world, connecting galleries, buyers and art businesses. Myta Bio - leverages biomimetic science to create superior industrial chemicals from natural ingredients. Neela Biotech - Creating carbon-negative jet fuel. Egg Advisor - Digital platform offering expert advice to women seeking to freeze their eggs. Polytecks - Wearable tech firm building e-textiles capable of detecting valvular heart diseases. RetroAnalytica - Using AI to decarbonise buildings by predicting energy inefficiencies. SafeTide - Using ‘supramolecular’ technology to keep delicate medicines stable at room temperature for longer periods. The Surpluss - Climate tech company identifying unused resources in businesses and redistributing them. Yacson Therapeutics - Using ML to find plant-based therapeutics to help combat inflammatory bowel disease. Zenithon AI - Using AI and ML to help advance the development of nuclear fusion energy. The intensive incubator will run for four weeks from the end of August. Each participant will receive specialised support from Founders at the University of Cambridge and King’s E-Lab mentors and entrepreneurs-in-residence to turn their concepts into companies that can attract both investment and ultimately grow into startups capable of driving economic growth. Following the program, the founders will emerge with: A validated business model and a clear pathway to product development Access to expert mentorship and masterclasses with global entrepreneurs and investors The opportunity to pitch for £20,000 investment and chance to pitch for further investment from established Angel Investors at Demo Day A chance to join a thriving community of innovators and change-makers Kamiar Mohaddes, co-founder and Director of King’s Entrepreneurship Lab, said: “Cambridge has been responsible for many world-changing discoveries, but entrepreneurship isn't the first thought of most people studying here. Driving economic growth requires inspiring the next generation to think boldly about how their ideas can shape industries and society. We want SPARK to be a catalyst, showing students the reality of founding a company. We look forward to seeing this cohort turn their ambitions into ventures that contribute meaningfully to the economy.” Gerard Grech, Managing Director at Founders at the University of Cambridge, said: “Cambridge is aiming to double its tech and science output in the next decade – matching what it achieved in the past 20 years. That ambition starts at the grassroots. The energy from the students, postgraduates and alumni is clear, and with tech contributing £159 billion to the UK economy and 3 million jobs, building transformative businesses is one of the most powerful ways to make an impact. This SPARK 1.0 cohort is beginning that journey, and we’re pleased to partner with King’s Entrepreneurship Lab to support them.” Gillian Tett, Provost of King’s College, said: “Cambridge colleges have more talent in AI, life sciences and technology, including quantum computing, than ever. Through SPARK, we can support even more students, researchers and alumni to turn their ambition into an investable idea and make the leap from the lab to the marketplace. This isn’t just a game-changer for King’s, but for every college in Cambridge whose students join this programme and journey with us to make an impact from Cambridge, on the world.” Jim Glasheen, Chief Executive of Cambridge Enterprise, said: “The SPARK 1.0 cohort highlights the breadth and depth of innovation within collegiate Cambridge. SPARK, and the partnership between King’s College and Founders at the University of Cambridge, is a testament to our shared commitment to nurture and empower Cambridge innovators who will tackle global challenges and contribute to economic growth.” The programme is free for students graduating in Summer 2025, postgraduates, post-docs, researchers, and alumni who have graduated within the last two years. This is made possible through the University of Cambridge, as well as a generous personal donation from Malcolm McKenzie, King’s alumnus and Chair of the E-Lab’s Senior Advisory Board. The text in this work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License. Images, including our videos, are Copyright ©University of Cambridge and licensors/contributors as identified. All rights reserved. We make our image and video content available in a number of ways – on our main website under its Terms and conditions, and on a range of channels including social media that permit your use and sharing of our content under their respective Terms.

An artificial heart valve made from a new type of plastic could be a step closer to use in humans, following a successful long-term safety test in animals. A research team, led by the Universities of Bristol and Cambridge, demonstrated that the polymer material used to make the artificial heart valve is safe following a six-month test in sheep. Currently, the 1.5 million patients who need heart valve replacements each year face trade-offs. Mechanical heart valves are durable but require lifelong blood thinners due to a high risk of blood clots, whereas biological valves, made from animal tissue, typically last between eight to 10 years before needing replacement. The artificial heart valve developed by the researchers is made from SEBS (styrene-block-ethylene/butyleneblock-styrene) – a type of plastic that has excellent durability but does not require blood thinners – and potentially offers the best of both worlds. However, further testing is required before it can be tested in humans. In their study, published in the European Journal of Cardio-Thoracic Surgery, the researchers tested a prototype SEBS heart valve in a preclinical sheep model that mimicked how these valves might perform in humans. The animals were monitored over six months to examine potential long-term safety issues associated with the plastic material. At the end of the study, the researchers found no evidence of harmful calcification (mineral buildup) or material deterioration, blood clotting or signs of cell toxicity. Animal health, wellbeing, blood tests and weight were all stable and normal, and the prototype valve functioned well throughout the testing period, with no need for blood thinners. “More than 35 million patients’ heart valves are permanently damaged by rheumatic fever, and with an ageing population, this figure is predicted to increase four to five times by 2050,” said Professor Raimondo Ascione from the University of Bristol, the study’s clinical lead. “Our findings could mark the beginning of a new era for artificial heart valves: one that may offer safer, more durable and more patient-friendly options for patients of all ages, with fewer compromises.” “We are pleased that the new plastic material has been shown to be safe after six months of testing in vivo,” said Professor Geoff Moggridge from Cambridge’s Department of Chemical Engineering and Biotechnology, biomaterial lead on the project. “Confirming the safety of the material has been an essential and reassuring step for us, and a green light to progress the new heart valve replacement toward bedside testing.” The results suggest that artificial heart valves made from SEBS are both durable and do not require the lifelong use of blood thinners. While the research is still early-stage, the findings help clear a path to future human testing. The next step will be to develop a clinical-grade version of the SEBS polymer heart valve and test it in a larger preclinical trial before seeking approval for a pilot human clinical trial. The study was funded by a British Heart Foundation (BHF) grant and supported by a National Institute for Health and Care Research (NIHR) Invention for Innovation (i4i) programme Product Development Awards (PDA) award. Geoff Moggridge is a Fellow of King's College, Cambridge. Reference: Raimondo Ascione et al. ‘Material safety of styrene-block-ethylene/butylene-block-styrene copolymers used for cardiac valves: 6-month in-vivo results from a juvenile sheep model’. European Journal of Cardio-Thoracic Surgery (2025). DOI: 10.1093/ejcts/ezaf266/ejcts-2025-100426 Adapted from a University of Bristol media release. The text in this work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License. Images, including our videos, are Copyright ©University of Cambridge and licensors/contributors as identified. All rights reserved. We make our image and video content available in a number of ways – on our main website under its Terms and conditions, and on a range of channels including social media that permit your use and sharing of our content under their respective Terms.

Researchers have captured the first clear view of the hidden architecture that helps shape a simple multicellular organism, showing how cells work together to build complex life forms. In a study published in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS), a team of British and German scientists revealed the structure of the extracellular matrix in Volvox carteri, a type of green algae that is often used to study how multicellular organisms evolved from single-celled ancestors. The extracellular matrix (ECM) is a scaffold-like material that surrounds cells, providing physical support, influencing shape, and playing an important role in development and signalling. Found in animals, plants, fungi and algae, it also played a vital part in the transition from unicellular to multicellular life. Because the ECM exists outside the cells that produce it, scientists believe it forms through self-assembly: a process still not fully understood, even in the simplest organisms. To investigate, researchers at the University of Bielefeld genetically engineered a strain of Volvox in which a key ECM protein called pherophorin II was made fluorescent so the matrix’s structure could be clearly seen under a microscope. What they saw was an intricate foam-like network of rounded compartments that wrapped around each of Volvox’s roughly 2,000 somatic, or non-reproductive, cells. Working with mathematicians at the University of Cambridge, the team used machine learning to quantify the geometry of these compartments. The data revealed a stochastic, or randomly influenced, growth pattern that shares similarities with the way foams expand when hydrated. These shapes followed a statistical pattern that also appears in materials like grains and emulsions, and in biological tissues. The findings suggest that while individual cells produce ECM proteins at uneven rates, the overall organism maintains a regular, spherical form. That coexistence – between noisy behaviour at the level of single cells and precise geometry at the level of the whole organism – raises new questions about how multicellular life manages to build reliable forms from unreliable parts. “Our results provide quantitative information relating to a fundamental question in developmental biology: how do cells make structures external to themselves in a robust and accurate manner,” said Professor Raymond E. Goldstein from Cambridge’s Department of Applied Mathematics and Theoretical Physics, who co-led the research. “It also shows the exciting results we can achieve when biologists, physicists and mathematicians work together on understanding the mysteries of life.” “By tracking a single structural protein, we gained insight into the principles behind the self-organisation of the extracellular matrix,” said Professor Armin Hallmann from the University of Bielefeld, who co-led the research. “Its geometry gives us a meaningful readout of how the organism develops as it grows.” The research was carried out by postdoctoral researchers Dr Benjamin von der Heyde and Dr Eva Laura von der Heyde and Hallmann in Bielefeld, working with Cambridge PhD student Anand Srinivasan, postdoctoral researcher Dr Sumit Kumar Birwa, Senior Research Associate Dr Steph Höhn and Goldstein, the Alan Turing Professor of Complex Physical Systems in Cambridge’s Department of Applied Mathematics and Theoretical Physics. The project was supported in part by Wellcome and the John Templeton Foundation. Raymond Goldstein is a Fellow of Churchill College, Cambridge. Reference: B. von der Heyde, A. Srinivasan et al. ‘Spatiotemporal distribution of the glycoprotein pherophorin II reveals stochastic geometry of the growing ECM of Volvox carteri,’ Proceedings of the National Academy of Science (2025). DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2425759122 The text in this work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License. Images, including our videos, are Copyright ©University of Cambridge and licensors/contributors as identified. All rights reserved. We make our image and video content available in a number of ways – on our main website under its Terms and conditions, and on a range of channels including social media that permit your use and sharing of our content under their respective Terms.