The United States is engaged in a strategic competition with China over the nature of the global system, and the Middle East has emerged as a central site of great power competition: The United States, China, and Russia are all active there. At the heart of this competition is technology. Middle Eastern countries have been developing strong technology links with China while maintaining their security and economic relations with the United States. Smart cities present a valuable case study of this competition. A smart city is a city that addresses public issues with solutions based on information and communication technology–enabled use of large-scale data available from the Internet of Things. China is involved in dozens of smart city projects in the Middle East. In that region, the need for improved urban environments is pressing. The region is well above the world average for percentage of population living in urban areas and for urban population growth. Smart city infrastructure can be used to improve services, but it can also be used for population control, to limit public dissent, to violate privacy, and to strengthen authoritarian tendencies. This therefore makes smart cities a positive factor in improved services and greater connectivity but also a potential threat to civil society and personal and political freedom. China’s involvement raises an additional issue: that of data security and the integrity of communications networks, especially those related to U.S. activities in the region. This paper addresses potential U.S. concerns related to these developments.

The authors of this report present a brief historical overview of the relationship between African countries and the People’s Republic of China (PRC) since its inception in the middle of the 20th century. In this overview, the authors cover economic, humanitarian, and political aspects; highlight trade and investment flows; and summarize Chinese medical and military aid to Africa. The authors also cover Chinese interests in Africa and African countries’ concerns about Chinese engagement on the continent. In addition, three country case studies are presented to highlight how Chinese engagement differs from country to country on the continent. The authors conclude with recommendations for policymakers and propose areas for further research. A decline in relations between the West and Africa at the end of the Cold War and the drop in Western approval because of undemocratic practices and human rights abuses in African countries have created an avenue for China to expand its relationships with African countries. While the West attached conditions to loans and assistance offered to African countries, China presented a no-strings-attached alternative, which only required African nations to respect China’s core sovereignty interests. China has also taken advantage of disinvestment by Western companies in Africa to increase its investments. Chinese economic engagement declined in the second half of the 2010s but is now enjoying a revitalization. This economic engagement has paved the way for greater political and security engagements with African countries.