Report The Panel agreed on the outline of the 2027 IPCC Methodology Report on Carbon Dioxide Removal Technologies, Carbon Capture, Utilization, and Storage for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories (Additional guidance) at its 63rd Session held in Lima, Peru from 27-30 October 2025 (Decision IPCC-LXIII-6). The report will be a single Methodology Report comprising an Overview Chapter and six volumes consistent with the format of the 2006 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories. The structure of the Methodology Report is consistent with the 2006 IPCC Guidelines so as to make it easier for inventory compilers to use this Methodology Report with the 2006 IPCC Guidelines. Topics that will be addressed include: Transport, injection and sequestering of CO2 in relation to enhanced oil, gas, and coal-bed methane recovery Production of products containing or derived from captured and/or removed CO2 Carbonation of cement and lime-based structures Soil carbon sinks and related emissions enhanced through biochar and weathering and other elements Coastal wetlands carbon dioxide removal types not in previous IPCC Guidelines as well as additional information on mangroves, tidal marshes and seagrass in coastal waters Durable biomass products Carbon dioxide capture from combustion and process gases Direct air capture Carbon dioxide utilisation Carbon dioxide transport including cross border issues Carbon dioxide injection and storage CO2 removal through direct capture of CO2 from water already processed by inland and coastal facilities; and related elements across the range of categories of the IPCC Guidelines. The national greenhouse gas inventory includes sources and sinks occurring within the territory over which a country has jurisdiction. Over 150 experts are expected to participate in the writing process, which will be completed by 2027. The participants will be selected by the Task Force Bureau taking into account scientific and technical expertise, geographical and gender balance to the extent possible in line with Appendix A to the Principles Governing IPCC Work. The First Lead Authors’ meeting will be held in Rome, Italy, in April 2026. Preparatory Work The decision by the Panel to prepare this Methodology Report was informed by the work of experts at the scoping meeting held in Copenhagen, Denmark, from 14-16 October 2024. Prior to the scoping meeting, an expert meeting was held at Vienna, Austria 1-3 July 2024. These meetings considered Carbon Dioxide Removal (CDR) methods mentioned in the AR6 WGIII Report as a starting point for discussion and noted that several CDR activities have been already covered by the existing IPCC Guidelines. More Information The IPCC Secretary has written to national government focal points inviting nominations of authors by 12 December 2025.

Fast Facts Medicaid programs that cover prescription drugs are generally required to cover drugs that are (1) FDA approved and (2) made by a manufacturer that participates in the Medicaid Drug Rebate Program. 13 Medicaid programs didn’t cover Mifeprex and its generic equivalent, Mifepristone Tablets, 200 mg, when required. These drugs are used for medical abortion. We recommended the Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services ensure Medicaid programs comply with federal requirements for covering Mifepristone Tablets, 200 mg. We also reiterated our 2019 recommendation on Mifeprex, which hasn’t been implemented. White pills spilling from a pill bottle. Skip to Highlights Highlights What GAO Found Medicaid programs that choose to cover outpatient prescription drugs are required to cover all Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved drugs for their medically accepted indications when those drugs are made by a manufacturer that participates in the Medicaid Drug Rebate Program (MDRP), except as outlined in federal law. The FDA has approved two drugs—Mifeprex in 2000 and its generic equivalent in 2019, referred to as Mifepristone Tablets, 200 mg—for the medical termination of an intrauterine pregnancy, known as a medical abortion. Danco Laboratories and GenBioPro are the exclusive manufacturers of Mifeprex and Mifepristone Tablets, 200 mg, respectively, and both manufacturers participate in the MDRP. Medicaid programs in all 50 states, the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico cover prescription drugs and participate in the MDRP. According to officials from the Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services (CMS)—the federal agency within the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) responsible for ensuring Medicaid programs’ compliance—none of the MDRP’s statutory exceptions apply to Mifeprex or Mifepristone Tablets, 200 mg. Thus, these 52 Medicaid programs must cover these drugs when prescribed for medical abortion in circumstances eligible for federal funding, such as when the pregnancy is the result of rape or incest. GAO identified gaps in Medicaid programs’ coverage of Mifeprex and Mifepristone Tablets, 200 mg. Officials from 35 of the 49 programs who responded to GAO questions said their programs covered Mifeprex and Mifepristone Tablets, 200 mg for medical abortion, as of December 31, 2024. In contrast, officials from 13 programs told GAO their programs did not cover either drug for medical abortion. An official from the remaining program did not specify the medical indications for which its program covered the drugs. Medicaid Programs’ Coverage of Danco Laboratories’ Mifeprex and GenBioPro’s Mifepristone Tablets, 200 mg, as of December 31, 2024 Note: For more details, see fig. 1 in GAO-25-107911. State officials’ responses to GAO’s questions indicated that some states may not be complying with the MDRP requirements for covering Mifeprex and Mifepristone Tablets, 200 mg. However, CMS has not determined the extent to which states comply with the MDRP requirements for these drugs. CMS officials told GAO they were not aware of the following: Nine programs did not cover Mifeprex and Mifepristone Tablets, 200 mg for any medical indication, as of December 31, 2024; GAO reported four of these programs did not cover Mifeprex in 2019. Mifepristone Tablets, 200 mg was not available at the time of GAO’s 2019 report. Four additional Medicaid programs did not cover either drug when prescribed for medical abortion, as of December 31, 2024. CMS was not aware of these coverage gaps, in part, because it had not implemented GAO’s 2019 recommendation to take actions to ensure Medicaid programs comply with MDRP requirements to cover Mifeprex. CMS also has not taken actions related to the coverage of Mifepristone Tablets, 200 mg, as of August 2025. Without such actions, CMS lacks assurance that Medicaid programs comply with MDRP requirements and Medicaid beneficiaries may lack access to these drugs when appropriate. Why GAO Did This Study GAO was asked to describe Medicaid programs’ coverage of mifepristone. This report examines Medicaid programs’ coverage of Mifeprex and Mifepristone Tablets, 200 mg, among other things. GAO reviewed laws and CMS guidance on the MDRP, and coverage of Mifeprex and Mifepristone Tablets, 200 mg. GAO also sent written questions to officials from the 52 Medicaid programs that participate in the MDRP regarding their coverage of these drugs, and reviewed officials’ responses from the 49 programs that provided GAO information. Recommendations GAO reiterates its 2019 recommendation that CMS take actions to ensure states’ compliance with MDRP requirements to cover Mifeprex. GAO also recommends that CMS determine the extent to which states comply with federal Medicaid requirements regarding coverage of GenBioPro’s Mifepristone Tablets, 200 mg, and take actions, as appropriate, to ensure compliance. In response to the recommendation, HHS noted it is reviewing applicable law and will determine the best course of action to address it moving forward. Recommendations for Executive Action Agency Affected Recommendation Status Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services The Administrator of CMS should determine the extent to which states comply with federal Medicaid requirements regarding coverage of GenBioPro's Mifepristone Tablets, 200 mg, and take actions, as appropriate, to ensure compliance. (Recommendation 1) Open Actions to satisfy the intent of the recommendation have not been taken or are being planned. When we confirm what actions the agency has taken in response to this recommendation, we will provide updated information. Full Report Full Report (11 pages)

Abstract Climate change mitigation requires efficient and low-cost approaches for carbon dioxide (CO2) capture, and valorization of fruit waste offers a sustainable pathway to address this challenge. This study establishes a systematic modeling framework for interpreting CO2 adsorption on activated hydrochars derived from banana and orange peels synthesized via hydrothermal carbonization. Multiple kinetic and isotherm models were evaluated using both the coefficient of determination (\(\:{R}^{2}\)) and the Akaike Information Criterion (\(\:AIC\)) to ensure robust comparison. Kinetic analyses revealed that the pseudo-second-order model (\(\:{R}^{2}\) = 0.997, lowest \(\:AIC\)) and Elovich model best describe the uptake behavior, indicating chemisorption on heterogeneous surfaces. Equilibrium data were most consistent with the Tóth and Sips models (\(\:{R}^{2}\) > 0.99), supporting monolayer adsorption coupled with micropore filling. By combining statistical rigor with mechanistic interpretation, this work advances understanding of the adsorption mechanisms of fruit waste-derived hydrochars and highlights their promise as scalable and sustainable sorbents for CO2 capture. Data availability Data can be made available on a reasonable request. Abbreviations \(\:A\) : Temkin constant AIC: Akaike information criterion \(\:{a}_{R}\) : Isotherm constant of Redlich-Peterson isotherm \(\:b\) : Langmuir affinity constant \(\:C\) : Intraparticle diffusion boundary layer thickness CCS: Carbon capture and storage CCUS: Carbon capture utilization and storage CO2 : Carbon dioxide DI: Deionized HTC: Hydrothermal carbonization \(\:{k}_{1}\) : Rate constant in pseudo-first order \(\:{k}_{2}\) : Rate constant in pseudo-second order \(\:{k}_{F}\) : Freundlich constant \(\:{k}_{id}\) : Intraparticle diffusion constant KOH: Potassium hydroxide \(\:{k}_{R}\) : Isotherm constant of Redlich-Peterson isotherm MOF: Metal organic framework \(\:n\) : Heterogeneity parameter \(\:P\) : Pressure P0: Saturated vapor pressure of CO2 PFO: Pseudo-first order PSO: Pseudo-second order \(\:q\) : CO2adsorption \(\:{q}_{e}\) : Equilibrium concentration of CO2adsorbed \(\:{q}_{exp}\) : Experimental adsorption of CO2 \(\:{\stackrel{-}{q}}_{exp}\) : Mean experimental adsorption of CO2 \(\:{q}_{m}\) : Saturated adsorption of CO2 \(\:{q}_{mod}\) : Kinetic model determined adsorption of CO2 \(\:R\) : Gas constant \(\:{R}^{2}\) : Coefficient of correlation \(\:RSS\) : Residual sum of squared SDG: Sustainable development goal t: Time \(\:\alpha\) : Initial adsorption rate in Elovich isotherm \(\beta\) : Desorption constant in Elovich isotherm \(\beta_{R}\) : Heterogeneity parameter in Redlich-Peterson isotherm \(\wedge\) : Adsorption potential in Dubinin-Ashtakhov isotherm \(\phi\) : Temkin constant References United States Environmental Protection Agency. 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Dinesha Department of Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning, Shri Madhwa Vadiraja Institute of Technology and Management, Bantakal, Udupi, 574 115, India K. Ashwini Authors Sooraj Mohan View author publications Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar K. Ashwini View author publications Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar P. Dinesha View author publications Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar Contributions Sooraj Mohan: Conceptualization, Investigation, Formal analysis, Software, Writing– original draft, review, and editing. K. Ashwini: Software, Analysis, and Writing - original draft. P. Dinesha: Investigation, Formal analysis, Writing – original draft, review, and editing. Corresponding author Correspondence to P. Dinesha. Ethics declarations Competing interests The authors declare no competing interests. Consent to participate This research does not involve biological samples and/or human participants. 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To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. Reprints and permissions About this article Cite this article Mohan, S., Ashwini, K. & Dinesha, P. CO2 uptake on fruit wastes-derived activated hydrochars: systematic modeling of adsorption kinetics and isotherms. Sci Rep (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-30726-7 Download citation Received: 06 July 2025 Accepted: 26 November 2025 Published: 05 December 2025 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-30726-7 Share this article Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:Get shareable link Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article. Copy shareable link to clipboard Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative Keywords Adsorption Carbon capture Char Climate change mitigation CO2 Kinetics Subjects Chemistry Environmental sciences Materials science

Abstract This study presents a comprehensive geotechnical and geophysical characterization of foundation sublayers in Egypt’s New Administrative Capital, using thirteen Electrical resistivity Tomography (ERT) profiles with seismic velocity data from seventeen Shallow seismic refraction sites and three strategically selected Multichannel Analysis of Surface Waves (MASW) locations. The MASW sites were selected based on geoelectric profiles that reflect the complete types of lithologic variability across the study area, ensuring representative shear wave velocity (Vs) measurements. Resistivity results delineating four major subsurface units: a variable unit of sand, clay, and rock fragments; a limestone unit, a clay unit, and a sandstone unit. Seismic data enabled the calculation of key geotechnical parameters such as: rigidity modulus, Poisson’s ratio, Young’s modulus, and bulk modulus, revealing zones of high competence in the northeastern and northwestern parts, and incompetent materials in the central and southwestern parts of the study area and fairy to moderately competence between them. Material competence was assessed using the concentration index, material index, and stress ratio, which collectively divided the area into zones of slightly, moderately, and highly competent materials. Bearing capacity analysis showed ultimate and allowable bearing capacity values high in the eastern and southern zones, while central regions exhibited reduced capacities. These results provide a good assessment for site-specific foundation design and highlight the value of using geoelectric and seismic methods in complex urban planning. 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Exploration seismology (Cambridge University Press, 1995). Download references Funding Open access funding provided by The Science, Technology & Innovation Funding Authority (STDF) in cooperation with The Egyptian Knowledge Bank (EKB). This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors. Author information Authors and Affiliations Geology Department, Faculty of Science, Al-Azhar University, Cairo, 11884, Egypt Mahmoud A. Abed, Adel A. A. Othman & Mahmoud Zayed Geophysics Laboratory, Exploration Department, Egyptian Petroleum Research Institute, Cairo, Egypt Salah Shebl & Mohamed H. Farag EPRI Core Analysis Center, Egyptian Petroleum Research Institute (EPRI), Nasr City, Cairo, Egypt Mohamed H. Farag Authors Mahmoud A. Abed View author publications Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar Adel A. A. Othman View author publications Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar Salah Shebl View author publications Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar Mahmoud Zayed View author publications Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar Mohamed H. Farag View author publications Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar Contributions Mahmoud A Abed: Writing – review & editing **,** Writing–original draft, Visualization, Validation, Supervision, Software, Resources, Methodology, Investigation, Funding acquisition, Formal analysis, Data curation, Conceptualization.Adel A. A. Othman: Visualization, Validation, Supervision, Software, Resources participated in writing – review & editing.Salah Shebl: Visualization, Validation, Supervision, Software, Resources and participated in writing – review & editing.Mahmoud Zayed: Visualization, Validation, Software, Resources, Methodology, Investigation, Formal analysis, Data curation, Supervision, Conceptualization and participated in writing – review & editing.Mohamed H. Farag: Visualization, Validation, Software, Resources, Methodology, Investigation, Formal analysis, Data curation, Supervision, Conceptualization and participated in writing – review & editing. Corresponding authors Correspondence to Mahmoud A. Abed or Mohamed H. Farag. Ethics declarations Competing interests The authors declare no competing interests. Additional information Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. Rights and permissions Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. Reprints and permissions About this article Cite this article Abed, M.A., Othman, A.A.A., Shebl, S. et al. A comprehensive geotechnical and geophysical assessment of the foundation sublayers in egypt’s new administrative capital. Sci Rep (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-29246-1 Download citation Received: 05 October 2025 Accepted: 14 November 2025 Published: 05 December 2025 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-29246-1 Share this article Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:Get shareable link Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article. Copy shareable link to clipboard Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative Keywords Geotechnical Geophysical ERT Shallow seismic refraction New administrative capital Subjects Engineering Solid Earth sciences

Abstract Parental care increases offspring survival and thus contributes to the reproductive success of a species. However, offspring loss may induce behavioral and physiological stress responses in parents. By examining stress markers—heat shock proteins and reactive oxygen species—alongside behavioral observations, we analyzed the stress responses in Pardosa lugubris females following the removal of their egg sacs or juveniles. Stress markers were measured in both females and juveniles. Behavioral trials were conducted to assess maternal responses to egg sac loss: unfertilized females, females adopting foreign egg sacs, and females given a choice between their own and a foreign sac. The results indicate that fertilized females tend to adopt egg sacs after offspring loss, even when the sac is not their own. Offspring removal induced measurable stress responses in both mothers and juveniles, which decreased over time. These findings highlight how offspring loss affects maternal behavior and stress physiology in Pardosa lugubris, offering insight into the mechanisms underlying parental investment and resilience in invertebrates. Data availability All data generated or analysed during this study are included in this published article and its supplementary information files. References Alonso-Alvarez, C. & Velando, A. Benefits and costs of parental care. In The Evolution of Parental Care, 40–45 (Oxford Univ. Press, 2012). Bleu, J. et al. Reproductive allocation strategies: A long-term study on proximate factors and temporal adjustments in a viviparous lizard. Oecologia 171, 141–151 (2013). Google Scholar Stearns, S. C. The Evolution of Life Histories (Oxford Univ, 1992). Google Scholar Costa, J. T. The other insect societies: Overview and new directions. Curr. Opin. Insect. Sci. 28, 40–49 (2018). Google Scholar Glenszczyk, M. et al. 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Author information Authors and Affiliations Institute of Biology, Biotechnology and Environmental Protection, University of Silesia, Bankowa 9, 40-007, Katowice, Poland Marta Sawadro, Agnieszka Czerwonka, Bartosz Łozowski, Mateusz Glenszczyk, Weronika Porc, Karolina Cichocka-Śliwka & Agnieszka Babczyńska Authors Marta Sawadro View author publications Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar Agnieszka Czerwonka View author publications Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar Bartosz Łozowski View author publications Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar Mateusz Glenszczyk View author publications Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar Weronika Porc View author publications Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar Karolina Cichocka-Śliwka View author publications Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar Agnieszka Babczyńska View author publications Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar Contributions M.S. conceived and designed the study, prepared the study material, and wrote the main manuscript text. M.S., A.Cz., M.G., W.P., K.C-Ś., and A.B. performed the experiments, analyzed, and interpreted the data. M.S. and B.Ł. conducted the statistical analysis. A.Cz., M.G., and B.Ł. contributed to the review and editing of the manuscript. Corresponding author Correspondence to Agnieszka Czerwonka. Ethics declarations Competing interests The authors declare no competing interests. Additional information Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. Supplementary Information Supplementary Information. Rights and permissions Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License, which permits any non-commercial use, sharing, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if you modified the licensed material. You do not have permission under this licence to share adapted material derived from this article or parts of it. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/. Reprints and permissions About this article Cite this article Sawadro, M., Czerwonka, A., Łozowski, B. et al. Adoption behavior and physiological stress responses following offspring loss in Pardosa lugubris spider. Sci Rep (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-30418-2 Download citation Received: 19 August 2025 Accepted: 25 November 2025 Published: 05 December 2025 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-30418-2 Share this article Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:Get shareable link Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article. Copy shareable link to clipboard Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative Keywords Maternal behavior Parental care Stress markers Spiders Wolf spiders Pardosa lugubris Subjects Ecology Evolution Physiology Zoology

Abstract Herein, LaFeO3 photocatalysts (HX-LFO and SX-LFO) were synthesized using hydrothermal and sol–gel methods, respectively, for removing β-E2 from dairy cattle breeding wastewater. A combination of flocculation pretreatment and photocatalytic Fenton oxidation was used to achieve efficient β-E2 degradation. Results revealed that HX-LFO had high defect concentrations and achieved better photocatalytic Fenton oxidation efficiency for β-E2 than SX-LFO. The H0.7-LFO/H2O2/visible (Vis) system completely degraded 2 mg/L of β-E2 within 2 h and achieved a total organic carbon (TOC) mineralization rate of 99.7%. The intermediate products, degradation pathways, and ecological toxicity of β-E2 degradation were analyzed. The H0.7-LFO/H2O2/Vis system exhibited stable degradation performance when humic acid and multiple anions coexisted in the reaction solution. The developed system increased the β-E2 degradation rate to 83.38%–100%. 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Author information Authors and Affiliations Agro-Environmental Protection Institute, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Tianjin, China Shiyu Lv, Tian Yuan, Xueyan Zhang, Pu Yang, Kerong Fu, Xia Yao, Weilin Fu, Qiuxian Zhang & Feng Wang Agro-Ecosystem, National Observation and Research Station, Dali, China Shiyu Lv, Tian Yuan, Xueyan Zhang, Pu Yang, Kerong Fu & Feng Wang College of Resources and Environment, Yunnan Agricultural University, Kunming, China Shiyu Lv & Kerong Fu College of Grass Industry and Environmental Science, Xinjiang Agricultural University, Urumqi, China Yanli Luo Authors Shiyu Lv View author publications Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar Tian Yuan View author publications Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar Xueyan Zhang View author publications Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar Pu Yang View author publications Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar Kerong Fu View author publications Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar Xia Yao View author publications Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar Weilin Fu View author publications Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar Qiuxian Zhang View author publications Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar Yanli Luo View author publications Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar Feng Wang View author publications Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar Contributions S.L., Conceptualization, Writing–original draft, Visualization; T.Y., Data curation, Writing–review and editing; X.Z., Formal analysis; P.Y., Investigation; K.F., Methodology; X.Y., Project administration; W.F., Software; Q.Z., Validation; Y.L., Supervision; F.W., Funding acquisition, Resources. Corresponding author Correspondence to Feng Wang. Ethics declarations Competing interests The authors declare no competing interests. Additional information Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. Supplementary information Supporting Information Rights and permissions Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License, which permits any non-commercial use, sharing, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if you modified the licensed material. You do not have permission under this licence to share adapted material derived from this article or parts of it. 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Dual-defect LaFeO3 photo-Fenton removes β-E2 from dairy wastewater. npj Clean Water (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41545-025-00535-6 Download citation Received: 18 August 2025 Accepted: 15 November 2025 Published: 05 December 2025 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41545-025-00535-6 Share this article Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:Get shareable link Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article. Copy shareable link to clipboard Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative Subjects Chemistry Environmental sciences

Abstract Paints consist of intricate combinations of solvents, additives, and pigments that provide the desired color, coverage, and durability, and pose a human health risk due to potentially toxic elements (PTEs), including lead (Pb), chromium (Cr), and cadmium (Cd), which accumulate in biological systems. This research innovatively assessed the non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic health risks posed by PTEs in Iranian decorative (ornamental) paints and emphasized the need for awareness raising and the development of control regulations. The PTEs concentrations were determined through wet acid digestion and analyzed through ICP-OES. The findings indicated that Pb concentrations ranged from 689.4 to 858.6 mg/kg, Cr concentrations from 698 to 946.4 mg/kg, and Cd concentrations between 0.24 and 0.37 mg/kg, revealing that Pb and Cr values exceeded the permissible limits. The findings suggest that children exhibit a heightened susceptibility to these pollutants due to their unique behaviors and physiological traits. The ingestion route represented the primary contribution to the total hazard quotient, accounting for 96.8% in children and 58.4% in adults. The adults’ hazard index (HI) for Pb and Cd was below the safe threshold of 1, whereas Cr surpassed this limit concerning non-carcinogenic risk. In children, the HI for both Pb and Cr surpassed the acceptable limit. Total Lifetime cancer risk (TLCR) values for both groups in Cr were higher than the acceptable range established by the USEPA, with relatively higher values observed in children. Among the three metals analyzed, Cr exhibited the most significant potential health risk, followed by Pb and Cd. Ingestion was identified as the primary route of exposure, while inhalation and dermal routes were less significant. To enhance the accuracy of exposure risk assessments for PTEs, a Monte Carlo simulation was utilized as a probabilistic algorithm to minimize uncertainties. Data availability The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author (Saeed Rajabi: saeedrajabi27@gmail.com) on reasonable request. References Akindele, A. F. I. & Osibanjo, O. A Revisit on Lead in Decorative and Industrial Paints in Nigeria (Springer Science and Business Media LLC, 2024). Olukotun, S. F. et al. And M. Mathuthu, Assessing Heavy Metals and Developing a Fingerprint for Mahikeng Paints Using ICP-MS Analysis: Implications for Environmental Health (Springer Science and Business Media LLC, 2024). Mohammadpour, A. et al. Seasonal variations of potentially toxic elements (PTEs) in drinking water and health risk assessment via Monte Carlo simulation and Sobol sensitivity analysis in Southern iran’s largest City. Appl. Water Sci. 13 (12), 237 (2023). 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Google Scholar Download references Acknowledgements The authors sincerely appreciate the financial support provided for the preparation of the current study. This research was approved by the Ethics Committee of Birjand University of Medical Sciences (Iran) under the ethical code IR.BUMS.REC.1403.083 and research-approval code 457425. Author information Authors and Affiliations Student Research Committee, Birjand University of Medical Sciences, Birjand, Iran Fatemeh Ataiesalami Department of Environmental Health Engineering, Sirjan School of Medical Sciences, Sirjan, Iran Mahsa Tahergorabi PhD in Analytical Chemistry, School of Public Health, Social Determinants of Health Research Center, Birjand University of Medical Sciences, Research, Birjand, Iran Hadigheh Dorri Department of Environmental Health Engineering, School of Health, Social Determinant of Health Research Center, Birjand University of Medical Sciences, Birjand, Iran Maryam Khodadadi Department of Public Health, Sirjan School of Medical Sciences, Sirjan, Iran Mohammad Moqaddasi Amiri Environmental Health Engineering Research Center, Kerman University of Medical Sciences, Kerman, Iran Saeed Rajabi Student Research Committee, Kerman University of Medical Sciences, Kerman, Iran Saeed Rajabi Department of Environmental Health Engineering, Faculty of Public Health, Kerman University of Medical Sciences, Kerman, Iran Saeed Rajabi Authors Fatemeh Ataiesalami View author publications Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar Mahsa Tahergorabi View author publications Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar Hadigheh Dorri View author publications Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar Maryam Khodadadi View author publications Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar Mohammad Moqaddasi Amiri View author publications Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar Saeed Rajabi View author publications Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar Contributions Conceptualization, M.T.; methodology, F.A. and M.T.; software, M.KH. and H.D.; validation, M.M.A.; formal analysis, M.T.; investigation, M.KH. and H.D.; resources, F.A.; data curation, M.T.; writing—original draft preparation, M.T., M.KH., and S.R.; writing—review and editing, M.M.A. and S.R.; visualization, M.T. and S.R.; supervision, H.D.; project administration, F.A.; funding acquisition, M.T., F.A., and M.KH.; All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. Corresponding authors Correspondence to Maryam Khodadadi or Saeed Rajabi. Ethics declarations Competing interests The authors declare no competing interests. Additional information Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. Rights and permissions Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License, which permits any non-commercial use, sharing, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if you modified the licensed material. You do not have permission under this licence to share adapted material derived from this article or parts of it. 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Sci Rep (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-30826-4 Download citation Received: 29 August 2025 Accepted: 27 November 2025 Published: 05 December 2025 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-30826-4 Share this article Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:Get shareable link Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article. Copy shareable link to clipboard Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative Keywords Color paints Heavy metals Risk assessment Child exposure Monte carlo simulation Subjects Environmental sciences Risk factors